Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and comprehension. It encompasses aspects such as thinking, remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Behaviorism focuses solely on observable and measurable aspects of behavior rather than internal mental processes. This approach emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior.

Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to eventually trigger a conditioned response. This process was famously demonstrated by Pavlov in his experiments with dogs.

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behaviors are modified through the use of rewards and punishments. This concept focuses on the consequences of behavior as a way to shape future actions.

In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the id is the component of personality that contains unconscious instinctual drives and desires. It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

Attribution involves explaining the causes of behavior and events. It distinguishes between internal dispositions and external situational factors to help understand why individuals act in certain ways.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that help individuals make decisions with minimal cognitive effort. While they simplify the decision-making process, they can sometimes lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.

Positive reinforcement involves introducing a pleasant stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. It is a fundamental principle in operant conditioning.

Social facilitation is the phenomenon where an individual's performance improves when they are in the presence of others, especially for tasks that are well-practiced. This effect underscores the social influences on performance.

Self-actualization is the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, representing the need to realize one's full potential and achieve personal growth. It involves creativity, problem-solving, and the pursuit of inner fulfillment.

A schema is a mental structure that organizes knowledge and guides information processing. It facilitates quick interpretation of information by providing a framework based on past experiences and expectations.

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort or tension that results from holding two conflicting beliefs or values simultaneously. This discomfort often motivates individuals to change their attitudes or behaviors to reduce the dissonance.

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where people estimate the likelihood of events based on how quickly and easily examples can be recalled. This can lead to biased judgments when memorable events are more readily recalled than statistical probabilities.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to favor information that aligns with one's existing beliefs and to ignore or discount contradictory evidence. This bias can reinforce pre-existing opinions, even in the face of new or conflicting data.

Learned helplessness occurs when a person repeatedly encounters negative outcomes and begins to believe they have no control over their situation. This can lead to a state of passive resignation and is often studied in relation to depression.

Shaping involves rewarding successive approximations toward a desired behavior, gradually guiding complex behavior development. It is a core technique in operant conditioning that helps in learning tasks that are not naturally occurring.

Albert Bandura is renowned for his work on observational learning and social cognitive theory. His Bobo doll experiments demonstrated how children learn behaviors through watching and imitating others.

An internal locus of control is the belief that personal actions and decisions directly influence outcomes. This contrasts with an external locus of control, in which individuals attribute results to external circumstances or fate.

Neuroplasticity is the brain's capacity to adapt by forming and reorganizing neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury. This adaptability is essential for recovery and skill acquisition throughout life.

Dualism is the philosophical theory that the mind and body are fundamentally separate entities. This perspective has significantly influenced debates on the nature of consciousness and the relationship between mental and physical processes.