Memory is the cognitive process that involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. This distinguishes it from other processes like perception and attention, which serve different functions.

Cognition involves the mental processes used to acquire, process, and store information. It is distinct from physical or emotional processes.

Attention is the selective process of focusing on particular aspects of the environment while ignoring others. This ability is crucial for effective information processing.

Perception is responsible for organizing and interpreting sensory data to form a meaningful experience. It is distinct from memory or problem solving, which have different roles in cognition.

Cognitive psychology is concerned with investigating mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and language. It differs from other areas that focus on external behaviors or genetic factors.

The formal operational stage marks the period where individuals develop the capacity for abstract and logical thinking. Earlier stages, such as the concrete operational stage, deal primarily with tangible, concrete information.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load required for decision-making. While they are efficient, they do not always guarantee a correct solution like a step-by-step algorithm might.

Working memory serves as a mental workspace where information is temporarily held and actively manipulated. This is distinct from sensory memory and long-term memory, which play different roles in information retention.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to favor information that confirms one's existing beliefs. It is a classic example of a cognitive bias that can influence decision making.

Information Processing Theory compares human cognition to computer functions, focusing on how information is encoded, processed, and stored. This theory contrasts with behaviorism, which centers on observable behaviors.

Algorithms provide a systematic, step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly. Heuristics, on the other hand, are shortcuts that can simplify decision-making but may lead to errors.

Short-term memory is highly susceptible to interference, leading to rapid forgetting. In contrast, long-term memory generally retains information for a much longer period.

Chunking is the process of organizing information into larger, coherent groups to enhance memory retention. This strategy reduces cognitive load by making information easier to process and recall.

Reaction time experiments measure the speed of responses and are a common indirect method used to infer cognitive processes. They offer insights into how quickly the brain processes and responds to information.

Schema Theory suggests that our knowledge is organized into frameworks that help us interpret new information. Schemas play a crucial role in memory by structuring and simplifying the complex information we encounter.

System 1 thinking operates quickly and automatically, relying on intuition. In contrast, System 2 thinking is slower and requires more conscious effort and deliberation.

Metacognition is the ability to reflect on and regulate one's own thought processes. This self-awareness helps individuals adopt strategies that improve learning and problem-solving performance.

The prefrontal cortex is crucial for executive functions, including the central executive role in working memory. It helps coordinate and manage cognitive tasks such as planning and decision-making.

Cognitive load theory emphasizes the need to reduce unnecessary mental effort while enhancing the processing of relevant information. This approach helps tailor instructional materials to the learner's capacity, resulting in more effective learning.

Cognitive plasticity refers to the brain's capacity to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This adaptability is fundamental to learning new skills and recovering from brain injuries.