The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This predictable behavior occurs when light strikes a smooth surface.

Refraction is the change in direction of a light ray as it travels from one medium to another due to a change in its speed. This effect is commonly observed when light passes from air into water.

When light enters water from air, it slows down due to water's higher refractive index. This reduction in speed causes the light ray to bend toward the normal, following Snell's law.

Among the colors in the visible spectrum, violet light has the shortest wavelength. Its short wavelength corresponds to a high frequency and energy.

Dispersion is the process by which white light is split into its constituent colors, as seen when light passes through a prism. This occurs because different wavelengths of light refract by different amounts.

In Snell's Law, n₝ represents the refractive index of the first medium from which the light originates. This value helps determine how much the light will bend when entering the second medium.

The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence at which the refracted ray in the less dense medium travels along the boundary, i.e., at 90°. For angles greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs.

A convex lens converges parallel light rays to its focal point due to its curved, outward-bulging shape. This convergence is the basis for its ability to form clear images.

A concave mirror is capable of producing a real, inverted image when the object is located beyond its focal point. This occurs because the converging surface of the mirror reflects light rays to a focal point.

In the thin lens formula, dₒ stands for the object distance, which is the distance from the object to the lens. This parameter, along with the focal length, helps determine where the image will be formed.

The speed of light in a medium is determined by the equation v = c/n, where n is the refractive index. An increase in the refractive index means that light travels slower in that medium.

Interference is the phenomenon where overlapping coherent light waves produce regions of constructive and destructive interference. This results in the formation of alternating bright and dark fringes.

Diffraction is the bending and spreading of light waves when they encounter an obstacle or pass through a narrow opening. The effect becomes significant when the size of the opening is comparable to the wavelength of the light.

Polarization refers to the orientation of the oscillations of light waves. Light can be filtered so that only waves oscillating in a certain direction are transmitted, which is the principle behind polarizing filters.

Optical fibers use the principle of total internal reflection to confine light within the core, allowing the light to travel long distances with minimal loss. This technology is fundamental in telecommunications and various medical applications.

By applying the thin lens formula 1/f = 1/dₒ + 1/dᵢ, substituting f = 10 cm and dₒ = 30 cm gives 1/dᵢ = 1/10 - 1/30 = 2/30. This calculation yields an image distance of 15 cm, demonstrating basic lens imaging principles.

The critical angle is given by sin(θc) = n₂/n₝, where n₂ (air) is 1.0 and n₝ (glass) is 1.5. Calculating θc yields approximately 42°, which is the minimum angle needed for total internal reflection to occur.

The fringe spacing in Young's double-slit experiment is given by Δy = (λL)/d, where d is the slit separation. Decreasing d while keeping the wavelength and screen distance constant causes Δy to increase, resulting in wider spacing between fringes.

Rainbows form when sunlight enters a raindrop, is dispersed into its component colors, and undergoes internal reflection before exiting the drop. This sequence of refraction, dispersion, and reflection separates the colors to form the visible arc.

Optical fibers are designed with a core that has a higher refractive index than the surrounding cladding to enable total internal reflection. This design keeps the light confined to the core, allowing for efficient long-distance data transmission.