P waves are compressional waves that travel faster than S waves, making them the first to arrive at seismic stations. S waves are shear waves and cannot travel through liquids, which is a key difference.

P waves are capable of traveling through both solid and liquid materials, unlike S waves and most surface waves. This property makes them useful in studying Earth's interior.

Surface waves travel along Earth's surface and tend to have larger amplitudes and longer durations. Their characteristics cause more ground shaking, leading to increased damage during earthquakes.

Refraction is the bending of waves when they pass from one medium to another with a different density or elasticity. This is a key concept in understanding seismic wave propagation.

S waves are shear waves that require a solid medium to propagate and cannot travel through liquids. This characteristic helps seismologists infer the state of Earth's interior layers.

The velocity of P waves increases with depth because the mantle is under higher pressure and density compared to the crust. This acceleration helps seismologists understand the structure of Earth's interior.

S waves are generated by the shearing or transverse motion of rocks during an earthquake. This is in contrast to P waves, which are produced by compressional forces.

Seismic wave amplitude is directly proportional to the energy released during an earthquake. A higher amplitude reading on a seismograph typically signifies a more powerful event.

P waves are the fastest seismic waves and are therefore usually the first to be recorded by seismographs. Their quick arrival aids in early analysis of the earthquake.

Body waves (P and S waves) generally exhibit higher frequencies compared to surface waves. Surface waves typically have lower frequencies and larger amplitudes, contributing to their destructive power.

An increase in rock rigidity means the material resists deformation more effectively, allowing seismic waves to travel faster. Both P and S wave velocities are enhanced in more rigid materials.

A longer time interval between the arrival of faster P waves and slower S waves indicates that the seismic station is located at a greater distance from the earthquake. This time difference is used to estimate the distance to the epicenter.

Surface waves travel along the Earth's surface and interact directly with topographical features, which can alter their amplitude and trajectory. This makes them highly sensitive to variations in surface conditions.

S waves cannot propagate through liquid, and since the Earth's outer core is liquid, there is a region on the Earth's surface where S waves are not detected, known as the S-wave shadow zone. This phenomenon provides crucial evidence about the liquid nature of the outer core.

Variations in temperature and composition change the density and elasticity of Earth's materials, which in turn affect both the velocity and the refraction of seismic waves. These changes help scientists infer details about the internal structure of the Earth.

Seismic tomography utilizes differences in seismic wave speeds to create images of Earth's internal structure. Variations in velocity can indicate differences in temperature and composition, providing insights into mantle convection and other processes.

Triangulation involves using data from multiple seismograph stations to pinpoint the epicenter and focus of an earthquake. The differing arrival times of P and S waves are crucial for this method, helping to accurately locate the source.

Seismic waves behave differently when passing through materials with varying densities, elastic properties, and states of matter. Analyzing these variations enables scientists to deduce the structure and composition of Earth's internal layers.

A subducting tectonic plate is generally colder and denser than the surrounding mantle, leading to slower seismic wave velocities in that region. This contrast helps seismologists identify and map subducting plates.

When seismic waves convert from one type to another at internal boundaries, it provides additional data on discontinuities and material properties. These conversions are integral to detailed seismic imaging and understanding Earth's internal structure.